In his seminal work "The Wretched of the Earth", Frantz Fanon recounts an anecdote that highlights the psychological impact of colonialism on the colonised. He describes the feelings of inferiority and self-hatred that often arise in those who have been subjugated by foreign powers. This underscores the importance of dismantling colonial legacies to heal the collective psyche of a nation and restore a sense of dignity and pride. The Union Government has been dismantling colonial laws and legacies one at a time. The latest one in the series is the dismantling of cantonments. By dismantling these cantonments, India not only reclaims its public spaces but also signals its commitment to breaking free from the shackles of its colonial past.
In the aftermath of their victory over Nawab Siraj ud-Daula at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the East India Company established cantonments throughout India, beginning a legacy of colonial influence. The first of these cantonments was founded in 1765 at Barrackpore, near Calcutta.
Christopher Cowell from Trinity College, Dublin, has made significant contributions to understanding the history of cantonments in India. Though his doctoral thesis, "The Cantonments of Northern India: Colonialism and the Counter Urban, 1765-1889," is currently under embargo, his insightful essay "The Kaccha-Pakka Divide: Material, Space and Architecture in the Military Cantonments of British India (1765-1889)" is highly recommended for those interested in exploring this topic further.
Cantonments have a rich and varied history, with their origins rooted in European military practices. The origin of the term can be traced back to the French word "canton," which refers to a corner or district, as exemplified by the cantons in Switzerland. Initially, they served as temporary shelters for troops during harsh weather or when foraging was limited. Lancelot Turpin de Crissé's influential work, 'An Essay on the Art of War', highlighted the importance of internal connectedness in cantonments due to the need for preparedness. This principle shaped the development of cantonments during British rule in India, leading to a flexible yet consistent arrangement of military facilities. Under Robert Clive's influence, cantonments evolved into a unique, permanent urban complex, showcasing the British East India Company's growing confidence in its ability to maintain stability in the Bengal and Bihar regions.
From the very beginning, cantonments had a distinct system of segregation in place, separating the Europeans and the native sepoys. Clive, in a letter to the Select Committee at Fort William (10 July 1765), emphasized on building new cantonments and the importance of strategically positioning forces to "defend the country and preserve the lives of men". He argued that the buildings for Europeans should be strong, durable, and convenient, considering the long-lasting and growing influence of the Company in the region. Clive also mentioned that the buildings for sepoys could be less robust due to their better ability to cope with the local climate because of their diet, temperament, and constitution. From the beginning, the concepts of kaccha and pakka buildings were divided based on race and climate perceptions.
As cantonments proliferated, they facilitated the army's ability to maintain a degree of separation from the local populations of pre-existing Indian urban settlements. This was, in part, to enable effective surveillance, ensuring that the Company's spatial security measures maintained a "detachable" quality. This distinct separation also granted the army control over the internal development within cantonments. Consequently, the army was able to establish laws governing each cantonment enclave, determining the exclusion or differentiation of various populations and practices within these territories. This approach ultimately reinforced the colonial strategy of maintaining control and dominance over the colonised regions. Cantonments were governed by the Indian Cantonment Act. The law was notably thorough and included provisions addressing even matters like prostitution within cantonments. The Cantonment Act (XXII of 1864) differentiated prostitutes based on their association with Europeans, subjecting only those engaged with Europeans to regulatory measures.
The Cantonments Act was enacted in 1924, and the Military Lands and Cantonments Service emerged as a Central Service in the 1940s. In an attempt at disengagement from a colonial past, the name of the service was altered in 1985 from Defence Lands and Cantonments Service to the Indian Defence Estates Service. The persistence of cantonments in modern India exemplifies a strong case of path dependency, illustrating how historical decisions and events continue to exert a significant impact on institutions and infrastructure in former colonies to this day. At the time of independence, there were 56 cantonments, with an additional six established post-1947. Ajmer, the most recent cantonment, was notified in 1962.
It is crucial to examine the additional advantages of ending cantonments, besides the obvious objective of dismantling the colonial legacy.
(1) Lord Clive pioneered the strategy of establishing distinct residential areas for the Company's forces, positioned just outside the contemporary urban centers and along significant trade routes, such as the river Ganga. His intention was to minimize interactions between the Englishmen and the local population, ensuring that discipline within the forces was maintained and uncompromised. However, over the years, as a result of rapid urbanisation, these cantonments have increasingly become integrated within city boundaries, with some even situated near city centers. This has resulted in disorganised growth in the adjacent areas due to the absence of comprehensive development strategies. Apart from this, the emergence of both formal and informal businesses has contributed to unchecked waste production in the areas surrounding these cantonments. Although cantonments often possess extensive tracts of largely unoccupied land and maintain a low population density, the surrounding areas tend to be densely populated. As civilian areas within cantonments will be handed over to the urban local bodies, it will help in the optimal utilisation of land especially in densely populated cities like Delhi.
(2) Although cantonment boards are independent, they rely on nearby municipal bodies for essential services like water and sewage. Also, the presence of autonomous administrative frameworks hinders the planning process, resulting in suboptimal distribution and oversight of resources. Merging them with the municipal bodies will take care of these impediments in service delivery to the residents.
(3) According to data from the Defence Estates Office, the Ministry of Defence possesses an impressive 17.99 lakh acres of land, with 1.61 lakh acres situated in 62 strategically designated cantonments throughout the nation. Enhancing the use of existing lands in urban areas is a compelling and practical approach to increasing their population capacities. Once the civilian areas within the cantonments are handed over to urban local bodies, it will help these bodies raise much more revenue. This revenue will not just come out of the property tax.
(4) There were lot of restrictions for building or rebuilding structures within the civil areas of cantonments.
234. Sanction for building. - No person shall erect or re-erect a building on any land in a cantonment- (a) in an area, other than the civil area, except with the previous sanction of the Board; (b) in a civil area, except with the previous sanction of the Chief Executive Officer, nor otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter and of the rules and bye-laws made under this Act relating to the erection and re-erection of buildings: Provided that if an erected or re-erected building is meant for public purposes, then it shall be made accessible to and barrier free for the persons with disabilities.
Section 235 of the Act is even more restrictive. Residents are required to give notice if they are planning to construct or reconstruct a building - if they make significant alterations, enlarge or convert a building's purpose, split or merge living spaces, or make changes that could negatively impact the building's stability, safety, drainage, sanitation, or hygiene. The building plans should also compulsorily conform to existing laws and building by-laws. Every cantonment has its own building by-laws. We found it difficult to get hold of these by-laws over the internet. However, as one could guess, these by-laws are very restrictive. In most of the cantonments, one can build on the ground floor plus one. This is also one of the reasons why illegal structures which do not conform to building by-laws have cropped up in some of the cantonments. It's no surprise that the tax collections of the cantonment boards are also very low. Thus, amalgamation with civic bodies will help get rid of such provisions and allow residents to build better structures that allow optimal utilisation of land.
(5) In the past fiscal year, a staggering 74% of cantonments (46 out of 62) faced budget deficits and received grant-in-aid from the Defence Ministry. A sum of Rs 190 crore was allocated to these struggling cantonments, and it was utilised for essential development works such as repairs, drainage, street lighting, and water supply. This financial aid comes in addition to the revenue generated by cantonment boards. Though it is a tiny portion of the overall Defence budget, the question is, should the Defence Ministry be responsible for funding the development of civil areas?
(6) Civilians who were governed by cantonment boards can finally access and benefit from state government welfare schemes provided by municipal corporations and municipalities. This not only ensures the equitable distribution of resources and services but also fosters a more inclusive environment for residents within the cantonments.
By dismantling these cantonments, India reclaims its public spaces, integrates civilian areas with municipal bodies, and signals its commitment to progress toward a brighter future. The legacy of cantonments will undoubtedly persist, but their dismantling marks an essential step toward decolonisation and progress.
Bibek Debroy is the Chairman, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) & Aditya Sinha is Additional Private Secretary (Policy & Research), EAC-PM.
Disclaimer: These are the personal opinions of the author.